2nd Semestral Exam Review - Theories
Media ownership / regulation
Media ownership: The media industry is dominated by large multinational conglomerates. The concentration of ownership of our media sources (news, film, TV, radio, video games etc) are falling into the hands of fewer and fewer corporations.
Media regulation: Media texts are regulated by organizations such as OFCOM and IPSO. Media regulation on the new media technologies is necessary to protect the public from inappropriate materials and to provide a free space of public access and various opinions.
Case Study: TikTok which was released to US in 2018 are accessible all around the world except China and it is available in 40 different languages. TikTok doesn't have any specific regulation except for optional parental restrictions. Meanwhile, the Chinese version of TikTok, Douyin has tight regulations for children under 14 to protect them from inappropriate contents. The app is locked from 10pm to 6am and they only can access it 40 minutes per day. Douyin also promote videos including educational contents.
Synergy
Definition: Synergy is when media companies work together to achieve a goal that couldn't be achieved independently. It's the process by which media institutions use a range of platforms to promote, sell and distribute their products.
Case Study: CJ ENM created synergy through both horizontal and vertical integration. They dominated the Korean media industry by using their subsidiary companies to help distribute their products. An example of how this is, with vertical integration, CJ ENM created a survival TV show Produce 48 (2018) through their subsidiary company, Mnet. Aside from airing on Mnet, the show was also distributed globally through CJ ENM's subsidiary companies. The show was distributed to global audiences through TVing Global service (CJ ENM's live streaming service) and was broadcasted on other countries in Asia through the tvN channel which are also owned by CJ ENM. Other than that, Mnet also created synergy by working together with a Japanese broadcasting channel BS Sky PerfecTV to promote the show in Japan.
Cross Media Convergence
Definition: Cross media convergence is when two or more forms of media / media companies combine to create an outcome in order to attract more audience, help companies gain awareness and to create more profits. It also refers to companies coming together vertically or horizontally (or both).
Case Study: The Walt Disney Company gain benefits from cross-media convergence as it produces and distributes a wide range of different types of media with horizontal integration. In 2011, Disney acquired Lucasfilm along with the ownership of Star Wars and other franchises owned by Lucasfilm. Disney succeeded in expanding the Star Wars even more thanks to their large fanbase and budget. Other than releasing the movies in box office, Disney also distributed the Star Wars series on their VOD platform, Disney+ which allows audience to access their contents easily.
New Media
Definition: A digital form of media communication created through technological convergence which allows user to interact with it. New media can be access through technologies such as phones or laptops.
Case Study: As technology advances, people are starting leave traditional media such as physical magazines and newspapers behind. With technological convergence, user can access digital form of media anywhere and anytime with the internet. Magazine that was considered as traditional media have evolved into new media as the demand for physical magazines decreases. In 2017, Teen Vogue stopped the printing of their physical magazine and have completely moved to digital website based magazine. Online magazines are preferred by many audiences especially the younger ones like Teen Vogue’s target market, because they’re accessible by everyone and cheaper or even free of cost. Teen Vogue have adapted their styles according to the preferences of their audiences by including a wide variety of article with more pictures and less writings and increasing interactivity on their website to attract their attention.
Agenda Setting
Definition: The agenda setting theory explores how the views and thoughts of the public can be altered by what they see and hear in the media. Large media corporations craft their messages according to their beliefs and bias to influence audience in order to promote their own agenda.
Case study: Fox news channel has been described as a conservative media. Being in the right wing, they deliver biased news in favor of conservative political position (the Republican party & Donald Trump). An example is in March 2023 the former US president, Trump got indicted. The CNN news channel which is considered center left leaning, reports true facts and reasonings on Trump's indictment. On the other hand, Fox news altered their message to fit in into their ideologies and focuses more on the prosecutor behind Trump's indictment in order to not leave bad impressions of Trump to the public.
Key words:
Framing - how something is presented to the audience influences the choices people make about how to process that information. Framing involves crafting messages by emphasizing certain aspects of an issue and presenting the information in a certain context to influence the public opinion. Shapes the way that issues are perceived by the audiences.
Media gatekeepers - Individuals or groups who have the power to control or influence the coverage and portrayal of information through the media. They have the power to shape public opinion and influence the public's understanding of issues by determining which stories are covered and how they are presented.
Right-wing - generally associated with conservative views, and tends to support policies racism and anti democracy ( example of media outlets: Fox News, Breitbart News, and The Daily Caller )
Left-wing - generally associated with progressive or liberal views, and tends to support policies and positions that prioritize social justice, equality, and government intervention in areas such as healthcare and education ( examples of media outlets:The New York Times, The Guardian, and MSNBC )
Center-right wing - conservative or center-right perspective on economic and fiscal issues, while being more moderate on social issues (ex. The Wall Street Journal)
Center-left wing - moderate to liberal perspective on social issues, while being more moderate or neutral on economic and fiscal issues (ex. CNN, BBC)
Censorship
Definition: Censorship, the suppression of words, images, or ideas that are "offensive," It can be conducted by governments or media institutions.
Case Study:
Some scenes from an episode of the American TV sitcom "Friends," "The One with the Lesbian Wedding" was cut out or censored due to some explicit and vulgar behaviors, including LGBTQ+ relationship. Enraged fans took their complains to Weibo with the hashtag #FriendsConsored. However, after a few days the hashtag was removed by the government to silence the fans.
US Law: Section 230
Definition: The US Section 230 stated that a media platform is not held responsible for the content on their site.
Case Study: In 2021, Donald Trump tweeted a series of tweets that are considered inappropriate by the public. After receiving a number of reports from the public, Twitter decided to access his tweets according their user policy. Not long after, Twitter announced the permanent suspension of Trump's account which brought up another public claiming that Twitter is "banning the freedom of speech."
Technological Convergence
Definition: Technological convergence is the integration of media and technology to create new media. Technological convergence serves a more convenient way of media communication through a digital medium.
Case Study: With technological convergence, anyone can produce and distribute their own media through social media/video streaming platforms such as YouTube, Twitter or Twitch. Digitally distributed media can spread messages to a wider audiences with little restrictions.
Hegemonic Groups
Definition: The media industry is dominated by rich, straight, white men. Representations in the media tend to reflect their ideologies because they have the power to deliver messages to the masses. This is often done to maintain their social supremacy.
Moral Panic
Definition: Moral panics are irrational fears or threats that has been spread and exaggerated by the media. The 5 stages of moral panic are, Concern, Hostility, Consensus, Disproportionality and Volatility.
Case Study: Joseon Exorcist sparked a controversy after its first two episodes aired for cultural appropriation and historical distortion. There were concerns that international viewers and children may get the wrong impression and information about Korean history if they watch the drama. A formal petition was created to remove Joseon Exorcist from SBS‘s broadcasting schedule on Korea's Blue House official website, which resulted to the series getting cancelled. However this created another Moral Panic as many viewers were disappointed by the news
Post Modernism
Theorist: Jean Baudlliard
Definition: The theory of postmodernism rejects modernism. Baudlliard’s suggests that there are no specific reality. Audiences prefer to watch heightened reality, hyper reality and augmented reality instead of their own reality.
Post Colonialism
Theorist: Paul Gilroy & Peter Barry
Definition: Gilroy argued that, most media is based on euro-centric world view. White europeans are represented in a positive way than 'the others,' people from previously colonized countries. Media production is dominated by white people which pushes the ideology is white supremacy (white saviour). White, British people are represented as heroic, clean, polite, strong, while 'the others' are represented as exotic and barbaric.
Peter Barry’s four characteristics of post colonial analysis:
1. An awareness of representations of the non-European as exotic or immoral ‘Other’
2. An interest in the role of language
3. An emphasis on identity as doubled, hybrid, or unstable
4. A stress on cross cultural interactions
Key words:
Eurocentric - The belief that the European culture is superior to all others
Double consciousness - the internal conflict experienced by subordinated or colonized groups in an oppressive society.
Othering - the practice of representing and defining the colonized natives as inferior to their European counterparts.
Case Study: The Crown (2016) depicted the Royal Family as civilized, educated, well-spoken and elegant to show how Europe is civilized and strong while 'the others' are represented with a negative stereotype. They're shown with mise-en-scene such as disheveled clothings and poor living conditions to show how uncivilized and poor they are.
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